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Каспинфо январь 2001 |
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Название: Компания в защиту исчезающих осетровых (на английском)- II Главные Пункты: * Акция в защиту белуги и других видов осетровых, которым угрожает исчезновение, инициированная ведущими экологическими организациями мира. (продолжение) (23.01.2001) Полный Текст Компания в защиту исчезающих осетровых (на английском)- II Executive Summary Caviar. The very word evokes glamorous lifestyles, exotic travel and glittering festivities. Yet the world's source of this luxury item, the sturgeon, is in grave danger. Sturgeon have survived since the days the dinosaurs roamed the Earth. The question now is whether these "living fossils" can survive the relentless fishing pressure, pollution and habitat destruction that have brought many species of sturgeon to the brink of extinction. Today, the 27 species of sturgeon and their close relatives, paddlefish, are in sharp decline, and those living in the Caspian Sea, the cradle of world caviar production, are in crisis. This report outlines the status of Caspian Sea sturgeon and recommends actions needed to protect these imperiled fish. Sturgeon are indeed remarkable fish. Clad in bony plates and equipped with broad snouts, some species of sturgeon live to be more than 100 years old and can grow up to 2,500 pounds and 15 feet-long. Like humans, many sturgeon species reproduce relatively late in life; some do not reach sexual maturity until the ages of 15 to 25. A single sturgeon can produce hundreds of pounds of roe, though the very largest fish are extremely rare today, following decades of overfishing. Sturgeon live in rivers, coastal marine waters and lakes in the Northern Hemisphere, and feed on bottom dwelling organisms such as worms, mollusks, small fish, shrimp and insect larvae. Sturgeon face six major problems: Overharvesting: Sturgeon are the principal source of one of the world's most expensive and sought-after luxury goods -- caviar. The fish eggs, or roe, are collected from female sturgeon after they have been caught and killed. The global caviar market has placed a premium on sturgeon, prompting overfishing and illegal fishing, or poaching, around the world. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of sturgeon and caviar exacerbates conservation problems. Sturgeon products, particularly caviar, are compact, easy to conceal, and extremely valuable. A number of sturgeon-producing countries, most notably Russia, have experienced political turmoil over the past decade; as a result, black markets have flourished at the same time fishery management and enforcement programs have collapsed. Life history characteristics: Sturgeon reproduce more slowly than other fish. They can take between six and 25 years to reach sexual maturity, and females of many sturgeon species reproduce once every three to four years. Therefore, sturgeon are vulnerable to overfishing and unable to recover quickly. In fact, depleted sturgeon populations may take a century or more to recover. In addition, their predictable migration patterns and bottom-feeding habits make them relatively easy prey for fishermen, who kill the fish to collect the roe. Lack of Effective Management: Many sturgeon and paddlefish migrate through the waters of different states and countries, often resulting in a patchwork of catch levels, fishing seasons, size limits and other management measures. Many of the world's most imperiled sturgeon populations live in politically and economically unstable countries, further hampering effective management. Loss of habitat: Sturgeon migrate up rivers to spawn. Dam construction, diversion of river water for irrigation and other purposes, and siltation of spawning and rearing habitats have nearly eliminated spawning runs on many large river systems used by sturgeon. Dams also alter river flow patterns, disrupting the natural signals that sturgeon rely on in their spawning migrations. Fish "ladders," intended to help fish surmount dams, generally have been ineffective for sturgeon. Pollution: Pollutants from urban and agricultural runoff and industrial discharges have been linked to significant reproductive and other abnormalities in sturgeon, and to large fish kills. Some U.S. and international measures are in place to protect sturgeon. Of the eight species of sturgeon and one species of paddlefish found in the United States, five species or subspecies are listed under the Endangered Species Act. Internationally, all sturgeon species are listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), two under Appendix I (under which international commercial trade is prohibited) and the rest under Appendix II (under which international trade is allowed only with a CITES permit from the management agency of the exporting nation). These measures are not enough, particularly for Caspian Sea sturgeon, which supply the majority of the world's caviar. Beluga sturgeon, the source of beluga caviar, is so depleted that it may no longer be reproducing naturally in the Caspian Sea region. To prevent extinction of this ancient fish and to prevent other sturgeon species from suffering the same fate, the Caviar Emptor Campaign, launched by the Natural Resources Defense Council, the Wildlife Conservation Society and SeaWeb, has called for: a.. An international prohibition on trade in beluga caviar; b.. Listing of beluga sturgeon as an endangered species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act; c.. Greater international funding for efforts to protect and restore Caspian Sea sturgeon; d.. Stronger U.S enforcement of international trade restrictions on caviar imports; e.. Support for environmentally sound aquaculture as an alternative to wild sturgeon caviar; f.. Stronger state management of U.S. sturgeon species. The campaign further recommends that consumers reduce their consumption of caviar and avoid beluga caviar altogether. If consumers do buy caviar, better choices include "aquacultured" caviar, North Star Caviar and Yellowstone Caviar. Sturgeon of the Caspian Sea Historically, the Caspian Sea has been home to the world's largest abundance of sturgeon. The largest inland body of water on Earth, the Caspian is fed by more than 100 rivers, the most important of which for sturgeon is the Volga River in Russia, which supplies 75 percent of the Caspian Sea's sturgeon catch. The Caspian Sea and surrounding nations The Caspian Sea is bordered by Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, and Iran. Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Iran supply the majority of the world's sturgeon catch and caviar production. The remainder comes from China, Romania, the United States, Canada and others. Virtually all of the caviar produced by Caspian Sea nations comes from four species: beluga sturgeon (also known as giant or great sturgeon), which produces beluga caviar; Russian sturgeon, which produces osetra caviar; stellate sturgeon, which produces sevruga; and Persian sturgeon, which produces Persian and osetra caviar. The fifth Caspian Sea sturgeon species, the ship sturgeon, is highly endangered and trade of its caviar is prohibited. Beluga, stellate and Russian sturgeon populations have declined precipitously over the last 20 years. (The status of Persian sturgeon populations is less certain.) While overfishing is the principal reason for the decline, the loss of spawning habitat and pollution also are responsible. Overfishing, illegal fishing, and lack of effective management Overfishing and poaching for the lucrative caviar market is perhaps the single biggest threat to sturgeon in the Caspian Sea region. Each egg-bearing female can produce 8 percent or more of her body weight in caviar. With caviar retailing for as much as $105 per ounce, the financial rewards of sturgeon fishing and poaching are enormous. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, regulation of northern Caspian Sea fisheries -- at one time strong and effective -- largely has fallen apart. With the exception of Iran, Caspian Sea fishing nations lack the resources to implement and enforce effective sturgeon management programs. Though several nations have regulations limiting fishing and prohibiting poaching, enforcement has been crippled by lack of funding and reported violence against enforcement officers. Illegal fishing is thought by many to be increasing. As a result, the illegal catch in the Caspian Sea and Volga River is estimated to be 6-10 times greater than the legal catch, and less than 15-20 percent of the actual sturgeon catch is thought to be registered in official reports. In 1995, virtually all the Russian and stellate sturgeon migrating to spawn in the Volga river were thought to have been caught by poachers. By 1998, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimated that more than 50 percent of the worldwide trade in caviar was illegal. While international trade requirements adopted in 1998 have helped reduce illegal trade, one sturgeon still can provide the equivalent of a month's salary in the economically depressed region, and there is little reason to believe that poaching for this "black gold" will cease any time soon. Habitat destruction Sturgeon in the region spawn in the rivers - principally the Volga -- feeding the Caspian Sea. Immediately after hatching, sturgeon larvae of most species migrate to the sea where they live for 6-20 years (depending on the species) until they mature. At that point, females migrate back to their river of origin to spawn. Dam construction has taken its toll, particularly on beluga sturgeon. By preventing sturgeon from reaching their main spawning grounds, dams have significantly reduced spawning habitat for sturgeon in the Caspian Basin. Historically, Caspian sturgeon populations spawned in the Volga, Ural, Kura, Terek, and Sulak rivers. Now, the Ural River is the last free-flowing river feeding the Caspian Sea, the only such river where sturgeon continue to reproduce naturally, without the benefit of hatcheries. However, some believe that the spawning population of sturgeon in the Ural has been essentially destroyed by poachers, and the river suffers from significant industrial and pesticide pollution. On the Volga River, the most productive in the world for sturgeon, as much as 85 percent of the spawning grounds for Russian sturgeon and virtually all of the beluga spawning grounds are blocked by the Volgograd dam. Pollution Population growth and industrial development in the Caspian region have generated an immense pollution problem. The World Bank estimates that one million cubic meters of untreated industrial wastewater is discharged into the Caspian annually. Ten million people live adjacent to the Caspian Sea and 60 million more live in the Volga River watershed. Soviet oil extraction left behind polluted soil and water, rusty equipment, and well fires that burned for years. The long history of oil contamination combined with untreated sewage from towns along the Volga River, industrial discharges and agricultural runoff have significantly degraded the Caspian Sea. Meanwhile, the five countries surrounding the sea are rushing to exploit still untapped oil deposits. Pollutants from urban and agricultural runoff and industrial discharges have been associated with reproductive and other abnormalities, as well as large fish kills. Status of Caspian Sea Sturgeon Overfishing, habitat destruction and pollution have left a grim legacy. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, annual sturgeon catches often exceeded 20,000 tons. By the late 1990's, the annual catch had declined to roughly 1,000 tons. The Russian State Committee for Fisheries projects that catch for the 2000 fishing year will be 441 tons of sturgeon, half the Russian quota. Fishermen have been unable to find enough fish to meet their quotas. Russia expects to produce 40 tons of caviar for export, a drop from 110 tons in 1999 and from 1,200 tons in 1985. Similarly, while Iran was authorized to export 90 tons of caviar in 2000, it reduced that amount to 70 tons to conserve sturgeon. The Russian State Fisheries Committee reportedly is concerned that diminishing catches may compel Russia to ban commercial sturgeon fishing in the northern Caspian Sea by 2002. Table 1: Numbers of spawners in sturgeon populations in the Volga River (thousands) Years 1961-65 1966-70 1971-75 1976-80 1981-85 1986-90 1991-95 1996-97 Beluga Sturgeon 26.0 26.0 20.7 16.6 14.6 12.7 7.0 1.8 Russian Sturgeon 860.3 1569.9 1983.3 2743.0 1072.0 717.7 354.8 102.0 Stellate sturgeon 535.4 538.7 490.0 572.2 626.3 683.1 289.2 132.0 Source: Khodorevskaya, R., et al., 1997. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union initiated artificial reproduction and population enhancement programs for beluga, Russian and stellate sturgeon in hatcheries along the Volga River. Although hatcheries have their problems, they have made important contributions to maintaining the three Caspian Sea species, particularly beluga sturgeon, in recent years. The one relatively bright spot for sturgeon in the Caspian Sea is the Iranian fishery that operates in the southern part of the Caspian Sea. The Iranian Fishery Organization (IFO), or Shilat, is the government institution that controls the sturgeon fishery and caviar trade. Only about 5 percent of the Iranian catch is beluga sturgeon. About two-thirds of Iran's caviar production is osetra, produced mostly by Persian sturgeon, a southern Caspian Sea native whose status is uncertain. Iranian sturgeon fisheries are tightly controlled and generally thought to be well managed. Despite their controlled system, Iran does not have important spawning grounds for sturgeon and therefore has limited ability to restore threatened Caspian Sea sturgeon. The Critical Status of Beluga Sturgeon Beluga caviar is the most coveted of all caviar, and as a result beluga sturgeon have been the most intensively fished of the Caspian Sea species. These fish can reach remarkable proportions. In 1908, the largest recorded beluga sturgeon ever caught contained 990 pounds of eggs, which today would have a street value of $1.6 million. Beluga sturgeon are native to the Caspian, Black and Azov Seas, and have suffered extreme depletion in all three seas due to overfishing, poaching, and loss of virtually all of its spawning habitat to dams and pollution. Experts believe beluga sturgeon in the Caspian are so depleted that they may not be reproducing in the wild; if so, their survival is entirely dependent on hatcheries. Many hatcheries have closed down or suffered from lack of funds since the collapse of the Soviet Union. And this year, local fishermen and Russian fisheries officials have complained that there are almost no large beluga available to supply fertilized eggs to the remaining hatcheries, raising serious questions about the viability of the population. Recent scientific research suggests that Russian sturgeon are close on the heels of beluga. The International Caviar Trade Commercial fishermen have hunted sturgeon for their roe and meat since at least 1100 BC. Ancient Greek and Roman literature refers to caviar, and the Chinese were trading it as early as the 10th century AD. Today, the majority of caviar produced is sold on the international market. Under international labeling rules, only sturgeon eggs can carry the caviar label. Imported caviar sells for $100 an ounce or more in the United States. The United States imports about one-third of the world's total caviar imports. From 1989 to 1997, the United States imported an average of 130,000 pounds of caviar per year, worth about $6.6 million. Caviar from the three principal Caspian Sea sturgeon species -- beluga, Russian and stellate -- dominates the U.S. caviar market. Until last spring, when U.S. trade sanctions against Iran were lifted for caviar, Russia supplied virtually all of the caviar imported into the United States. Based on figures reported to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the United States has produced up to 5 percent of the world's total sturgeon (both meat and eggs) since 1982. Nearly all of it in recent years has come from aquaculture and inland freshwater fisheries for paddlefish, shovelnose sturgeon, and white sturgeon. This figure is at best a rough estimate -- and likely an underestimate -- because some countries, including the United States, do not have rigorous programs to collect sturgeon fishery landings and aquaculture production information. Aquaculture of sturgeon and paddlefish for caviar is increasing in the United States and abroad, bringing with it both conservation opportunities and problems as discussed later in this report. The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Increasing concern about the status of Caspian Sea sturgeon inspired international action in 1998 to regulate the caviar trade by listing all previously unlisted sturgeon species under Appendix II of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Now, caviar exports must be accompanied by a CITES export permit issued by a designated management agency in the country of export. A separate "Scientific Authority" in the exporting country must determine that commercial trade is not detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild. Currently all but one (Turkmenistan) of the Caspian Sea border nations are parties to the CITES convention and thus bound by the new requirements. And some countries have implemented additional protections: the European Union, for example, requires an import permit for all Appendix II-listed species. In 2000, countries that are bound by CITES adopted a resolution requiring that exported caviar must carry a non-reusable label that includes identification of the grade (beluga, sevruga, osetra), the country of origin, the year of catch and an identifying number. These labels are required only for the initial export of caviar, not the re-export. CITES member nations may also accept shipments of caviar imported directly from countries of origin only if they are accompanied by appropriate documents and labels. The resolution further requires parties to establish a system of registration or licensing for both exports and imports. Smuggling Significant quantities of poached caviar are exported -- indeed, smuggling such caviar out of the five countries bordering the Caspian Sea is a flourishing business. Russia officially exported $25 million worth of caviar in 1999, while the value of poached caviar exports was estimated at $250 million. Discrepancies between trade statistics of countries importing and exporting caviar can indicate illegal trade. For example, Turkish caviar exports in 1996 totaled 121 tons, even though that country's sturgeon catch has been limited to a few incidental catches since the late 1980s. Russia reportedly plans to introduce a state monopoly on caviar production in 2001 to help reduce illegal trade. Caviar smuggling into the United States is routine. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, illegally imported caviar is seized virtually every week at New York's JFK Airport. Since April, 1998, 167 seizures have yielded 31,000 pounds of caviar smuggled into the United States. In the first case of enforcement of CITES requirements in the United States, a major caviar importer was sentenced in 2000 to 20 months in a federal prison and fined $25,000 for smuggling, conspiracy, and violating the Lacey Act, a federal law protecting wildlife taken, transported or sold in violation of any U.S. law or treaty. Warsaw's deputy police chief at the time pleaded guilty to conspiracy to smuggle wildlife. The company's records revealed sales of 21,000 pounds of caviar during a seven-month period; only 88 pounds of caviar had been legally imported. In July, 2000, Maryland-based U.S. Caviar and Caviar Ltd. was fined $10.4 million -- the largest fine ever in a wildlife prosecution -- for smuggling black market Russian caviar into the United States using forged Russian caviar labels, and for passing caviar from American paddlefish and shovelnose sturgeon as Russian caviar. Company officials admitted selling the contraband caviar to victim airlines, caviar wholesalers, seafood suppliers, and gourmet stores. While new CITES labeling requirements will help, illegal trade via smuggling, falsely produced labels and other means will likely continue as long as demand fuels very high prices. In addition, CITES actions do not affect domestic consumption of caviar within Caspian Sea countries. Despite the controls placed on the sale and trade of sturgeon products, illegally obtained sturgeon meat and caviar are openly available in Russia; the main difference between the legal and illegal caviar is the price, with illegal caviar costing less than half the price of legal caviar. Implications for sturgeon populations in the United States As populations of Caspian Sea sturgeon spiral downward, markets will likely turn to other sources of caviar, including North American sturgeon and paddlefish. During the 19th century, North America was an important source of sturgeon caviar, but overfishing and habitat loss caused many populations to decline. Of eight North American species of sturgeon and one species of paddlefish, five species or subspecies are listed as federally endangered (Gulf, pallid, shortnose, Kootenai River white, and Alabama) and possession of the severely depleted Atlantic sturgeon is prohibited. North American sturgeon caviar therefore has a very limited ability to replace Caspian Sea caviar in the marketplace. American sturgeon and paddlefish populations are managed by individual states or by interstate commissions. With a few exceptions, commercial fisheries for North American sturgeon and paddlefish species are not managed and monitored according to appropriate scientific standards, so expansion of these fisheries leaves the species vulnerable to undetected overexploitation. Even where effective regulations are in place, state officials are concerned that increasing prices for American caviar may entice poachers to illegally harvest and sell caviar from American species. U.S. Commercial Fisheries Currently, there is commercial caviar production from three North American species: American paddlefish, shovelnose sturgeon, and white sturgeon. Paddlefish are closely related to sturgeon, and just two species in this ancient family survive, one severely depleted population in China and one in North America. Also called "spoonbills," paddlefish live in freshwater and can grow to more than 5 feet in length and can weigh up to 150 pounds. They are named for the long paddle-like snout that is thought to help them detect changes in water flow and keep them afloat. Female paddlefish mature between the ages of 7-10, fairly early compared to other sturgeon, and produce an average of 7,500 eggs per pound of body weight. Paddlefish, like sturgeon, are more vulnerable to fishing mortality than are many other commercial and recreational fish because they live longer and mature later. Dam construction and channelization of North American river systems have destroyed much of the paddlefish' spawning grounds, and pollution, illegal fishing, and overexploitation have exacerbated the decline of the species. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed paddlefish as "Vulnerable," and paddlefish was proposed for listing as a protected species under the Endangered Species Act in 1989. Paddlefish live in 19 states along the Mississippi River and its tributaries and are subject to a diverse patchwork of management regimes. While several states have prohibited paddlefish fishing due to declining populations, others have management programs limited to seasonal or area restrictions, and still others have virtually no management. Inconsistencies in state management may be problematic for paddlefish and shovelnose sturgeon. A paddlefish, for instance, may travel hundreds of miles in its lifetime, crossing into the waters of neighboring states where it may or may not be protected. The Mississippi Interstate Cooperative Resource Agency (MICRA) is conducting a tagging study to assess paddlefish, the first step toward establishing comprehensive, biologically-based quotas and other management measures. Paddlefish caviar is marketed as "American caviar," "American premium black caviar," "Chattanooga Beluga," and, simply "American paddlefish caviar." In 1997, Indiana reported 73 pounds of paddlefish eggs from commercial fishing and Tennessee reported 141 pounds of paddlefish eggs. The joint venture programs run in Montana and North Dakota, discussed later in this report, produce about 3 tons of paddlefish roe per year. Shovelnose sturgeon produce caviar that is marketed as "Hackleback caviar" and "American sturgeon black caviar." Shovelnose sturgeon is one of the smallest North American sturgeon and lives in 18 states in the Mississippi River drainage. Though the population is generally considered healthy, the species is protected or considered vulnerable in eight states where it occurs and has been extirpated from five others. Generally, state fishery managers report that shovelnose sturgeon populations are stable, but no status review has been compiled for this species in 10 years, and there is no comprehensive collection of harvest data over the range of the species. While no state that responded to a 1997 survey expressed a concern about shovelnose sturgeon poaching, expanding demand for hackleback caviar may lead to illegal fishing in states that prohibit commercial shovelnose fishing and overfishing in states that allow commercial fishing but do not track landings completely. Commercial fishing for shovelnose sturgeon caviar is allowed in nine of the 18 states where shovelnose sturgeon live in the wild: Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. Landings and egg harvest are not completely tracked and reported. Illinois reported a total of 234 pounds of shovelnose sturgeon eggs in 1997. Given the lack of robust scientific information about the status of shovelnose sturgeon across their range and market demand for hackleback caviar, more rigorous management and monitoring of commercial shovelnose fisheries is desperately needed. Initial efforts to get a clearer picture of population status and commercial landings should focus on the nine states that allow commercial fishing for shovelnose caviar. Consumers should be aware that including Missouri, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Indiana, and North Dakota have issued consumption advisories for paddlefish and/or sturgeon caught in certain water bodies. The chemicals of concern are PCBs, chlordane (a pesticide), and mercury. White sturgeon are found in rivers and estuaries along the western coast of North America and Canada. The largest freshwater fish in North America, they regularly reach more than 10 feet in length. White sturgeon are farmed in California for caviar and meat; they are also fished recreationally in California, and commercially and recreationally in Oregon and Washington. White sturgeon spawn in three major river systems in North America (the Columbia-Snake, the Fraser (British Columbia), and the Sacramento-San Joaquin (California); the greatest abundance of white sturgeon is in the Columbia River Basin. The Columbia and Snake Rivers have both been dammed, costing the white sturgeon population there much of their spawning habitat, and populations are generally less healthy in impounded areas compared with those in the free flowing portions of these rivers. One population of white sturgeon, the Kootenai River population, is listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Only small amounts of wild white sturgeon roe is available to consumers. Commercial sale of white sturgeon roe is permitted for a segment of the Columbia River commercial fishery, but the 60-inch maximum size limit in the fishery precludes any significant catch of mature fish. White sturgeon are also poached for their increasingly valuable roe. In 1990, a caviar dealer and two others were convicted of violations of the Lacey Act for poaching approximately 2,000 adult white sturgeon from the Columbia River. They produced 3,307 pounds of caviar from the illegally captured fish which they testified to having sold as beluga and osetra caviar. |